Coaching Young Athletes

Profile of a Young Athlete
Young athletes are physically developing, from early childhood to late adolescence. This means they have different capabilities for, and adaptations to, exercise and for this reason, young athlete training programs should not be just scaled down versions of adult training programs.

The fastest rate of growth occurs in the first two years, the growth rate then slows until the adolescent spurt when the growth rate increases again. The adolescent spurt last approximately two years and takes place, on average, at 10 to 12 years for girls and 12 to 14 for boys. Growth rate then decreases until full height is reached.

Muscle mass increases steadily until puberty, at which point boys show faster muscle growth.
The hormonal changes at puberty also affect body composition in terms of fat.

•At birth, both boys and girls have around 10 to 12% body fat
•Pre-puberty, both girls and boys still have a similar 16 to 18% body fat
•Post-puberty, girls have around 25% body fat due to high serum oestrogen, which causes the hips to widen and extra fat to be stored in the same area.
•Post-puberty, boys have 12 to 14% body fat.

Most athletic females, post puberty, tend to keep body fat at around 18% (Wilmore & Costill, 1994). Any lower than 12 % body fat for females can be considered unhealthy in terms of maintaining bone density and disrupting hormone levels, which may increase the risk of stress fractures. Coaches need to make female athletes aware that until they are 19, they will steadily gain in muscle and so will naturally be gaining weight and that by eating the right kinds of foods is the way to avoid unwanted weight gain.

Exercise
Exercise does not stunt or promote growth in terms of height but it does thicken the bones by increasing mineral deposits (Wilmore & Costill, 1994). Growing bones are sensitive to stress so repetitive loading should be avoided. The epiphysial plate is susceptible to injury and therefore a fracture to the epiphysial plate prior to full growth could be a serious injury as it could disrupt bone growth.
A more common kind of epiphysial plate injury, and the one coaches must take care not to cause, is called epiphysitis. This is a repetitive strain injury which occurs when excess loads are placed on the tendons that attach to the epiphysis, causing an inflammatory response. In extreme cases, this type of injury can result in a separation of the epiphysis from the epiphysial plate. The most common epiphysitis, called Little Leaguer’s Elbow, occurs mostly in the USA among young baseball pitchers.

Strength
Strength increases with age because of body growth and the development of the neuromuscular system. From research Weltman et al (1986) carried out on the effects of resistance training on young athletes, it would appear that, strength improvements are possible. If coaches are to place young athletes on strength training programs then they must ensure that the young athletes:

•are properly taught (skill development)
•undertake a well controlled progressive program (planning)
•joints are not subject to repetitive stresses (injury prevention)

Encouragement and support without pressure is the key
The key to successful Coaching of young athletes, whether by parents or professionals is to tackle each phase of development differently, according to its context. We would all like our children to be Olympic champions and the worst thing you can do is pressurise your children with your own dream of glory and then blame them for not realising it.

At each stage in life the developing boy and girl have their own reasons for getting involved in sport. It may be a desire for approval, or a wish to make a mark in his or her peer group. More likely, it comes from discovering an aptitude for the sport, which brings a modicum of success. We all need to find things we can do well. Self-esteem feeds on achievement, and sport at club level is an excellent way of doling out spoonfuls of achievement on a regular basis.

Ages 7 to 11:
Avoiding “little league syndrome”
We hear of football clubs sending scouts to primary school matches, and the “pushy parent” phenomenon – or what the Americans call “little league syndrome” – can appear at a very early stage. But at this age sport is just play, and it does not matter who wins. Children need exercise: they need to develop their bodies and their brains, and the best way of doing this is by having fun at the same time.

Exercise also offers a way of learning about the world and how it works. Sport, like life, has its rules, its constraints and its set boundaries. Like life, it tries to be fair but does not always succeed. The child learns the hardest but most valuable lesson of all – that they have limits. The parent has to find out what the child can and cannot do well. They must offer the child lots of opportunities and help them to select the ones which will best help them grow as a person.

The “Tiger Woods model” is not a good one to follow, because this involves a parent imposing a regime at an age when the child is not in a position to make a choice. For every success this model produces, there are hundreds of frustrated children who are being blamed for not living up to their parents’ expectations.

During the primary school years, the child should be encouraged to run, but not forced to do so. A common reason for running is to be like Mum and Dad, and this is fine. If there is a local club, which caters for under 9s and under 11s, encourage them to go along, as long as the regime there encourages variety and non-specialisation.

Ages 11 to 13:
Resist the urge to specialise
At the beginning of secondary school, the child’s choices are generally guided by parents and teachers. The urge to specialise in one particular thing must be resisted: all the evidence is that those who keep up a variety of sports up to age 14 are more robust and less fragile than those who specialise early. Early specialisation may bring short-term success, but is that really what you want?

At this age there will be a huge difference between early and late developers. The arbitrary nature of the age-group system may lead to immature just-11-year-olds running against over developed 14-year-olds. Coaches and parents must be careful about throwing children into competition before they are ready for it, but they should not avoid competition entirely. People develop by overcoming challenges, and the art of coaching lies in finding the right sort of challenge for each youngster.

Ages 13 to 15:
Taking social life into account
During this phase the child has a far bigger share in the decision making process. The other feature of this age group is that social activities have to be taken into account. The running has to be handled in such a way that it does not conflict directly with the other developing interests. Again, if there is a local club with a good team spirit, it will provide the support and companionship, which is so important at this age.

By this time it will be clearer where the child’s talents lie. However, the really talented track runner may be needed for the football or the hockey team in the winter, when most runners are doing cross-country. This should not be a cause for worry, because some running training can be added to the football, and there is plenty of time to get fit for the track season if you start training in March.
Training can now become more organised, but other sports can still be kept in. A typical pattern might be two nights a week of club training, plus a Saturday race, to which can be added one or two more steady runs on the days when there are no other sporting commitments. It is important at this age that someone keeps a training diary, so that the youngster’s state of fitness is clear and training can be increased gradually year by year.

Aerobic and anaerobic development
Cardio-respiratory function develops throughout childhood. Lung volume and peak- flow rates steadily increase until full growth. For example, maximum ventilation increases from 40 L/min at five years to more than 110 L/min as an adult (Wilmore & Costill, 1994). This means that children have higher respiratory rates than adults, 60 breaths/min compared to 40 breaths/min for the equivalent level of exercise (Sharp, 1995). The ventilatory equivalent for oxygen is also higher in children, VE/V02 = 40 for an eight-year-old compared to 28 for an 18 year-old. This means that children have inferior pulmonary functions to adults.

Cardiovascular function is also different for children. They have a smaller heart chamber and lower volume than adults. This results in a lower stroke volume than adults, both at rest and during exercise. Chamber size and blood volume gradually increase to adult values with growth. Children compensate for the smaller stroke volume by having higher maximal heart rates than adults have. For a mid-teenager, max heart rate could be more than 215 beats/min compared to a 20 year-old whose max heart rate will be around 195-200 bpm (Sharp, 1995).

However, the higher heart rates cannot fully compensate for the lower stroke volume and so children’s cardiac output, measured in L/min, is lower than adults (Wilmore & Costill 1994). Children can compensate a little again, as their arterial venous oxygen difference is greater. This suggests that a greater percentage of the cardiac output goes to the working muscles than in adults (Wilmore & Costill, 1994).

It’s useful for coaches to know that aerobic capacity is probably trainable in children with a sufficient training stimulus. This makes aerobic training worthwhile, since it will improve their performance. However, the training effect will not be as great as is possible with adults because the lower stroke volume in children prior to full growth will limit the potential cardiac output increases with training. In addition, until after puberty, a poor running economy limits running endurance. Thus, as before, it is probably best to wait until the young athlete reaches adolescence before starting tough aerobic training, as this is the age when the athlete will truly benefit. Tough anaerobic training is of even more limited use for children since they possess little anaerobic capacity.

The most important areas of training for children are strength, speed, co-ordination, sport-specific skills, and agility. These are areas where improvements can be made through enhanced neuromuscular recruitment, laying down the skills for adulthood. As the nervous system develops, it seems that the potential for improvement in skills is the greatest. Training for aerobic and anaerobic endurance can be improved from adolescence when the body has reached its natural capacity and responses from this kind of metabolic training are greatest.

Gaining the winning edge
by Brian Mackenzie, editor of Successful Coaching, and Rick Newkirk

Mental Attitude
What makes a good player great? Sound basics? Size? Strength? Shooting ability? Speed? I believe its Attitude. The ability to except situations and make them work in their favour. Losers never seem to know why they lose. They blame the referees for bad calls, the gym conditions, the court surface, their teammates, etc. Winners on the other hand play above the problems. A wise man once said, ” It’s not what life hands us, but what we do about it”. I was once asked, what is the most important measurement on a basketball court? With out a doubt, it is the six inches between your ears. Winning and losing comes down to who can stay focused. Great players never let their opponent or outside conditions control their game. They are mentally tough, mentally conditioned. It is easy to get frustrated when pressure and mistakes happen. The more you dwell on it, the more mistakes you’ll make. I cannot count the times I have seen a player get the ball stolen and then commit a personal foul because they were out of control, or becoming outraged because someone was talking about their ancestors. If an opponent can pull you out of your game, who wins? Once you’re mad, you’re through! Referee calls, turnovers, Fouls, missed lay ups, are like the Civil War. Once they happen, they become HISTORY!

Sportsmanship
Show sportsmanship! Its easy to be a good winner, but it takes real class to hold your head up after a tough loss. Great players never take losing well. If you gave 110% during the game, and you were beaten, there is no shame in having lost. Give credit to the team who played better on that given day. Learn from it and let it go. The respect you’ll gain from opponents and fans on both sides are well worth it.

Conditioning
Stay in shape! A hero is no braver than the ordinary person, but they are braver five minutes longer. Spend as much time caring for your body as you put into your game. Eat well, get the correct amount of rest, run three times a week, most of all stay away from drugs and alcohol. Working out on your own isn’t easy, but as Coach Lombardi said, fatigue makes cowards of us all. To lose a contest because you run out of gas in the fourth quarter is unforgivable. If you lose a contest, make sure it was because they were better players, not in better shape.

Until the fat lady sings
Never give up! Winners never quit. “The person who wins may have been counted out several times, but they didn’t hear the referee” (Jansen). Finding a way to win is the mark of a great team. I have watched as our team made up nine points in ten seconds. Nothing is impossible when you believe. “Things may come to those who wait, but only the things left by those who hustle” (A. Lincoln). You will be surprised what can happen when you never give up.

Commitment and hard work
Work hard and be aggressive. Never be out hustled or out fought. The team who is persistent usually comes out on top. Show enthusiasm! Nothing is ever work, unless you would rather be doing something else. Make a commitment to excel, you never stop improving. When things you did yesterday still look big to you today, you haven’t done much today. There is no substitute for practice. Don’t count the days…..make each day count! The only person that keeps you on the bench and from being a starter…..is you!

Team-mates
Strong players criticise themselves, not their teammates. Everyone has room for improvement no matter what the level of play, and talking about someone else’s shortcomings never helps improve your game. Take an interest in your squad and friendships will grow along with the success of the team. Remember, there is no “I” in team. It takes 14 players working together to become successful.

Leadership
Never be afraid to take charge. When a teammate gets down pick them up with some encouragement and get it back on track. At practice be the first one on the court and the last one to leave. Talk on the court, direct traffic and let people know when someone is open or when there is a flaw in the defence. What you see plain as day may be hard for someone else to see. Never take any opponent for granted, respect everyone’s ability. Be a player who says, “can” not “can’t”. Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm. Be a total player!

Final Thoughts
Play hard! But never take yourself so serious that you forget to smell the roses. Enjoy the game, many lessons about life are taught from your adventures on the field of play. Take what it has to give you and apply it to what life throws your way. Remember that we cannot always control what goes on outside, but we can control what goes on inside. Be mentally tough, Never let what happens during a contest take you out of your game. Concentrate on what is important, experience and learn. Be the best you can, and the best will come back to you. Champions are made, never born. Ability can get you to the top, but it takes character to keep you there.

“You only achieve what you believe”

How to succeed with young athletes
Coaches must:

• encourage athletes to have strong-minded attitudes and self-assertiveness
• structure the athlete’s training programmes with realistic, achievable and progressive targets
• recognise the athlete’s achievements with positive enthusiasm
• advise athletes on proper diet and training
• convince athletes that their successes are due to their own ability, attitude and training
• insist on correct technique at all times
• use appropriate well balanced conditioning programmes
• display high standards of personal behavior and appearance – be a role model
• place the well being and safety of the athlete above the development of performance
• treat all athletes with equality
• encourage athletes to ask questions about their training and tell you what they think
• accept responsibility for their conduct and discourage inappropriate behaviour in training and competition
• give all athletes in your training groups equal attention
• be sensitive to the non-verbal signals being transmitted by the athletes (their faces usually give a good indication of how they feel)

Coaches must NOT
• over race or make the athletes compete outside their class
• criticise the physique of their athletes
• let the athletes think their success is due to luck or poor opposition
• ever “give up“ on an athlete e.g. tell them they are too slow to be a sprinter (they are still developing)
• encourage athletes to violate the rules of their sport
• promote or ignore the use of prohibited drugs or other banned performance enhancing substances